0013: Australia in 1884: Ngarra Burra Ferra

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PREVIOUSLY on 1884 

Barmah Lake, Victoria, Australia

Sunday 3 August 1884

Rowing up the Murray river, separating Victoria from New South Wales, in a native canoe, Thomas Shadrach James passes several paddle boats carrying wool and other agricultural produce from the outback which will be unloaded at Echuca wharf and transported by land to Melbourne. The 24-years-old Tamil Mauritian started teaching Aborigines children at Maloga Mission three years ago, but this is the first time he traveled up the river. 

After arriving at the shore of the Barmah Lake, his companion William Cooper – a 23-years-old half-European half-Aborigines of the Yorta Yorta Nation – suggested that they make a simple ‘mia-mia’ – a temporary shelter. They then goes out to shoot some rabbits before the short mid-winter day ends.

While Thomas skins the preys, William makes fire to cook them under the winter night sky. The whole colony seems far away – the chaotic life at the mission which has become a small village, the busy town of Echuca, and furthest away Melbourne, Victoria’s capital.

As they finally sit down to eat, William looks across to the other shore of the lake and slowly tears come to his eyes. Thomas waits for him to tell why they came out so far in the bush, when he was only expecting a verbal reply to his question. 

It’s certainly not the question of William’s English. Among all the Australian natives that Thomas has met, he speaks in the best English. Daniel Matthews, who founded the mission, told him that from knowing nothing of the language 13-year-old William mastered the English alphabets in three days and became fluent in no time.

Aboriginal Australian women and children, Maloga.

William was born by the banks of the Murray River in 1860. His mother, Kitty, was a traditional Wollithiga woman who made first contact with white settlers and lives in the Moira Forest. Their Moitheriban group, are known as the “reed people” by neighboring tribes. Kitty and her children speak a dialect of Yorta Yorta. William’s father, with whom he has no contact, was a white man called James Cooper. 

Finally, William utters, “My mother told me about this place some years ago. She was just a girl when white men first came to Yorta Yorta land. You must have heard of Edward Curr?”

Thomas: Yes, the Father of Separation who split Victoria from New South Wales, right? His son, E.M. Curr, also published a book Recollections of Squatting in Victoria last year.

William: I wonder if he mentioned anything about the crime which he committed here 41 years ago. 

Thomas: I don’t recall reading that. What happened?

William wipes his tears and continues: In 1843, some Yorta Yorta men stole sheep from their farm out of hunger. the younger Curr, then reported to Henry Dana, the chief of the Native Police that large numbers of Aborigines had assembled on the south bank of the Murray River and claimed that they were "daily threatening the lives of his men and attempting to take the sheep". 

So they hatched a plan. Curr with a bullock dray and sheep acted as a decoy and enticed many of our people from their reed-bed shelter. The white officers then charged from their hiding place and seized Chief Warry whom Curr pointed out. They rounded up the rest like sheep, started firing and shot some of them in the river. At least 20 men, one woman, five children were shot and killed. My mother was among the few who survived. 

Thomas: … How atrocious.

William Oswald Hodgkinson's painting 'Bulla, Queensland, 1861' shows armed fighting.
(Credit: National Library of Australia)

William: There were many more of us before they came and took our lands, desecrate our sacred places and destroyed our livelihood. Some of us adapt by becoming slaves and servants in their farms, others hide away from them in the bush trying to survive by the old ways. 

Thomas: They said this whole continent is Terra Nullius – no man’s Land – because they don’t see natives as humans.

William: But taking our land is not all they want. What they really want is to eliminate us. They call us subhuman and vermin. After Sunday service, some would go out on “black hunts” or “black shoots” and shoot as many men, women and children as possible. They took pleasure in killing us for fun as though we were kangaroos. 

Thomas: I am very sorry for these horrific acts by fellow Christians who laid their hands on native people.

William: You are not responsible for what white people do. You are not white. I believe that your people have also suffered at the hands of white people. Even Daniel isn’t responsible. Even though he’s white, he’s different. He built the Mission to protect us from them. I remember the first day I met him ten years ago. He came to pick up my family, after taking a great risk to rescue my sister Lizzie and her baby from the white men who chained her and other native women as sex slaves. I don’t even know how to repay him.

Thomas: You don’t have to. As he always says, he does it to pay for his father’s sins. You know the story how his father used to be a slave trader? 

William: Yes, I know that his father was a sea captain who shipped enslaved people from Africa to the West Indies.

Thomas: One day when Captain John Matthews was on a voyage, he saw an apparition of a man pointing on the map in the chart house of the ship. With curiosity, he altered the course to that specific coordinates and found a man he saw in the chart-house adrift at sea in a raft. After being rescued, the man said he had prayed to God all night for an intervention. The captain marveled at the story and after soul-searching became converted. He threw the rum overboard, gave up slave trading and moved to Australia. 

William: When I learned about the plight of the Africans who are enslaved and dispossessed of everything just like us, I cried. While working as coachman for Sir O’ Shanassy in Melbourne, I also heard him speak about Pacific Islanders blalckbirded away from their islands into slavery in Queensland’s sugar plantations. It broke my heart. Why do white men do this? They claim the whole Earth as their own. Around the time Sir O’ Shanassy passed away last year, I heard politicians’ uproar over European and American invasions of “their” backyard. What an irony. The British Empire has taken Australia, Tasmania, New Zealand, Fiji and what not.

Thomas: Yes, they panicked that Germany was going to occupy the Eastern part of New Guinea, France going to take Vanuatu, and they were angry that the Colonial Office in London was doing nothing to stop it. So Queensland unilaterally claimed annexation of the part of New Guinea unoccupied by the Netherlands themselves, but it was later rejected, to their dismay, by London.

William: And precisely because of that, the Australasian colonies will unite and become a union. More bad news for natives like us. 

After a massacre, those Aboriginal people who were not killed were often enslaved, 
similar to these men photographed near Wyndham, WA.(Credit: State Library of Victoria)

Thomas: Never give up. I’m sure God is on your side. You are all an inspiration. When I hear the twenty-five of you singing in Melbourne three and a half years ago, it was like God spoke to me. That’s why I volunteered to help Daniel at the mission without thinking of money or anything. 

William: We are all grateful for that. Although I was not at Maloga at that time, we could not have written the petition to Lord Loftus without your help. 

Thomas: It was not me or Daniel. It all came out from the hearts of Moira and Ulupna peoples. I can still remember parts of it now... That all the land within our tribal boundaries has been taken possession of by the government and white settlers; our hunting grounds are used for sheep pasturage and the game reduced and, in many places, exterminated, rendering our means of subsistence extremely precarious, and often reducing us and our wives and children to beggary….

William continues: We, the men of our several tribes, are desirous of honestly maintaining our young and infirm, who are in many cases the subject of extreme want and semi-starvation, and we believe we could, in a few years support ourselves by our own industry, were a sufficient area of land granted to us to cultivate and raise stock. We have been under training for some years and feel that our old mode of life is not in keeping with the instructions we have received, and we are earnestly desirous of settling down to more orderly habits of industry, that we may form homes for our families…

Thomas sighs: Unfortunately, the request was not granted. But at least the government began to take their responsibility and formed the Aborigines Protection Board as well as setting aside reserves at Cummera. Things are looking up. 

William: But it’s far from justice. Some of the petitioners still believe that it was a gift to them from Queen Victoria! We will have to do something again to make our points across.  In three years, it will be the queen’s Golden Jubilee and soon after that, the centenary of the New South Wales settlement. 

Thomas: There’s also a biblical teaching that in every 50th or jubilee year, property is returned to its original owners even if it had been sold in the meantime.

William: All the better. It will be a time to remind them how the last one hundred years has been apocalypse for us. All the Killing Times that happened must not be forgotten. We must have a fitting memorial.

William Cooper in later years

Thomas: What would you ask for?

William: That those among us who want it should be granted sections of land in fee simple or at a small nominal rental annual, with the option of purchase at reasonable prices for us under the circumstances. It should always be born in mind that we were the former occupiers of the land. This would enable us to earn our own livelihood, and thus partially relieve the State from the burden of our maintenance.

Thomas: That’s not much at all to ask for. Even poor rural whites would want the same thing, especially the Irish. If there were justice in treatment and distribution of land, there would not have been the Eureka Rebellion, and there would not be a Ned Kelly for them to hunt down and killed four years ago.

William: He was treated badly for stealing animals. But at least, they didn’t wipe out all his people.

Thomas: In many ways, the Ireland has also been occupied by the English like Australia. If the Irish were black, the English might have wiped them out too. Not that starving them in the Great Famine was much better.

William: We natives have had our whole world taken from us, yet we are not even demanding to be given back everything. All of us can learn to share this immense land with respect for each other’s way of life. And there would be less trouble for everyone. But now we, the original owners of the land, are entirely dispossessed of it by those who call themselves Christians.

Thomas Shadrach James in later years

Thomas: Frankly I am surprised that natives turn to Christianity at all. That’s why I asked you today how you decided to convert. But now I think I know the answer.  

William: I am the last among my family to convert. With all the things I learned during the time I traveled the country with Sir O’ Shanassy about Christian cruelties on natives, I couldn’t have brought myself to it. 

Thomas: What changed?

William: Six months ago, I woke up one night with music in my head. It came to me in my dream. I heard music that brought people with the same skin color from very far away. And they sang of a people who had been had been enslaved and taken from their homes. Then next morning at the service, when Daniel read from Exodus about Jews who were also dispossessed and enslaved by the pharaoh, I suddenly had an epiphany that this was where I was supposed to be. 

Thomas: I remember that. Exodus 15:4. “Pharaoh’s chariots and his army, he has hurled into the sea.

The best of Pharaoh’s officers are drowned in the Red Sea..” 

The University of Newcastle-led project has now mapped
more than 300 massacre sites around Australia.

William: White men have broken our faith. They have desecrated our holy places, our anchors in the world, and we have nothing left to hold on to. But with God, I feel connected with the world again. Never mind those men do not deserve to call themselves Christians. I have found Christ and his message of love and hope. I will follow Jesus and appeal to them as fellow human being. So after the service, I went to Daniel and said, “I must give my heart to the Lord”

Thomas: I can relate to that too. I don’t know where I belong or who my people are, really. My distant father is from Madras. My late mother was from Ceylon. I was born in Mauritius, and now I am in Australia.

William: You now belong with us. This is your land too. I welcome you as my brother. God has brought you to us.

William holds out his hand which Thomas holds firmly, feeling to finally belong somewhere.

Thomas: And God brought you all to me as singing angels. Praise the Lord.

William: Praise the Lord.

The two men – bonded as brothers – cross their heart, looking up to the Southern Cross high in the sky.

The Southern Cross

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Thomas Shadrach James found his home among the Yorta Yorta people, and soon married William’s sister, Ada. He and his son Shadrach James would continue to teach and influence generations of Aboriginal Australian activists. 

A few years later, the Frisk Jubilee Singers – an African American a cappella choir from Fisk University in Nashville, Tennessee – came to sing at the Maloga Mission.  

One song in particular deeply captured the hearts of the Aborigines at the mission so much that they would write, “"I shall never forget the effect of our singing there. The Aborigines were at first very shy of us, but when they heard us sing, they went into a state I can only describe as one of almost ecstatic delight… The music of the plantation stirred their souls as no other music could have done… They seem to recognize us as brethren from a far distant tribe. They followed our carriages for miles along the road, and waved adieus from fences, trees, and rising grounds in a way which showed that were we ever able to return there we would be welcomed with a welcome white men seldom receive."

It was “Turn back Pharaoh’s Army” – the story of Moses leading Jews out of Egypt. This song of deliverance and hope would be notated by Thomas James, translated into Yorta Yorta language and passed down the generations, now known as Ngarra Berra Ferra. 

Years later, William Cooper would found the Australian Aboriginal League, and on 6 December 1938 – weeks after Hitler’s Kristallnacht operation – lead a delegation of to the German Consulate in Melbourne to deliver a petition which condemned the "cruel persecution of the Jewish people by the Nazi government of Germany. 

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Womeriga Moses nyinin wala 

When Moses struck water 

Wala yapunei yeiputj 

Water came together 

Nowra bura fera yumina yala 

Turn back Pharaoh’s army Alleluia 

 

Nowra bura fera yumina yala 

Turn back Pharaoh’s army Alleluia 

Nowra bura fera yumina yala 

Turn back Pharaoh’s army Alleluia 

Nowra bura fera yumina 

Turn back Pharaoh’s army  

bura fera yumina 

Pharaoh’s army 

bura fera yumina yala yala 

Pharaoh’s army Alleluia 

 

Yunduk bekuk Jesu 

We’re going to sing to Jesus 

Browal bokuna yumina 

to bring some valiant soldiers’ 

Nowra bura fera yumina yala 

Turn back Pharaoh’s army Alleluia 

 

Nowra bura fera yumna yala 

Turn back Pharaoh’s army Alleluia 

Nowra bura fera yumna yala 

Turn back Pharaoh’s army Alleluia 

Nowra bura fera yumna 

Turn back Pharaoh’s army  

bura fera yumna 

Pharaoh’s army 

bura fera yumna yala yala 

Pharaoh’s army Alleluia 

 

Nowra bura fera yumna yala 

Turn back Pharaoh’s army Alleluia 

Nowra bura fera yumna yala 

Turn back Pharaoh’s army Alleluia 

Nowra bura fera yumna 

Turn back Pharaoh’s army  

bura fera yumna 

Pharaoh’s army 

bura fera yumna yala yala 

Pharaoh’s army Alleluia

Next Installment will be online on August 30 or slightly later.

0011 Aceh in 1884: Heart of Dutchness (Part 2)

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PREVIOUSLY on 1884 (Continued) 

 

Flag of the Aceh Sultanate

For the next few months, Kwabena assisted Thepen in training Acehnese soldiers to use modern weapons acquired from Singapore and particularly Penang, while learning Acehnese customs and language.

As months passed, news began to thicken of another Dutch invasion. In October, Aceh prepared itself for another round of do-or-die fighting. One day, Kw noticed that Thepen was missing from the training session and had to take over the role himself.

Kwabena sought them out but couldn’t find them in their quarter which appeared disorderly. After hearing whispers that Thepen and Swendsen were under detention, he found them in a prison cell.

K: What happened?

T: We are being banished, as soon as they can find a boat for us.

K: But why?

S: Because we have violated the law of God.

K: How?

Both of them fell silent and said nothing more. Kwabena noticed how Thepen held Swendsen’s hand tightly.  

He reached inside his pocket and produced two necklaces with wooden Osram ne nsoromma pendants similar to the one that saved his life, and showed them to the two.

K: Here. I have been meaning to give you these to pay for the helps you have given me these several months. I made them myself and hope that they would protect you as well. 

Surprised, Thepen and Swendsen looked at each other and then at Kwabena.

S: How did you know?

K: I have caught glimpses of how you two looked at each other, and I knew it was more than comradery or friendship. 

T: And you’re not disgusted by it?

K shook his head: Why would I? We also have people like you where I come from, including a childhood friend of mine. They are laughed and sneered at, but I am not one who would deny anyone the ways they live their lives. 

The two received the necklaces through the bars and put them around each other’s neck.

Osram ne nsoromma (Moon and star) adinkra symbol

K: Is this why you are outcast by the European community too?

T: Yes. As soon as they found out, no one would not give us works or any kind of support. But we always stay together. 

K: I am jealous. That’s something I hoped for me and my wife too.

S: You must miss her a lot. How long has it been?

K: It’s been six years since I was sent off by the Ashanti king to the Dutch as their army recruit. It was a form of banishment. 

T: But most Gold Coast soldiers in Java are peoples from other tribes enslaved by the Ashanti. I thought you’re Ashanti yourself.

K: I am. But even within the Ashanti Kingdom, there are factions. And I was young and stupid.

I am a nephew of General Asamoa Kwanta. Upon the death of King Osai Kwaku Dua in 1867, according to the tradition, the princes of the blood were allowed by custom to take the life of any subject. Prince Buakji Asu killed my brother, Yaw, who he thought was having an affair with his wife. 

As my uncle gathered men preparing for revenge and the whole Kumasi was approaching a civil war, I made a hasty decision and tried to kill Asu himself. I managed to kill a few of Asu’s men but was caught and kept as prisoner. To make peace, the new asantehene Kofi Karikari intervened and send Asu to pay for his crime at my uncle’s hand, and I was sent off to the Dutch as ‘recruit’ among the slaves. That’s the last time I saw her. 

T: When will you get to see her again?

K: After paying off the debt of my ‘recruitment’ I will be free to return. The contract is for fifteen years, but I know she will be there waiting for me. 

S: I don’t know if you know this. While in Penang, I heard from the British that they are preparing for war with Ashanti. This time they are going to send the bloody-handed Wolseley to Cape Coast.

K: They can’t fight jungle wars away from the firing range of their gunboats. I am sure they will be humiliated again as they were in ‘63. If it were not for the death of the previous king, Cape Coast would have been razed to the ground already.

T: What was the cause of that war?

K: Gold. A traitor called Jamin escaped to Cape Coast with gold that belonged to our king, but the British refused to turn him over. Jamin must have promised them access to the source of the gold. 

T: Of course, all European powers want the gold of the famed Gold Coast. That’s why the Dutch king invited Ashanti King to send his sons to study mining in Holland so that he would return to help with the Dutch gold-mining venture.

K: Prince Kwasi Boachi is a traitor. His father the king sent him to study in Holland, but he chose to come to Java instead of returning to Ashanti.

T: Well, the Dutch must find him useful to get their hands on Acehnese gold too. That’s why they keep here, although they would never give him a high position over white engineers.

S: Not just the Dutch, the French also. Our “friend” Roura also has his eyes on it to compensate for his loss in the pepper trade.

At that point, the chief entered and told Kwabena to leave. Soon Thepe and Swendsen were taken out of the cell and led to their boat …. 

That was the last Kwabena saw of the two unlucky lovers.

Ashanti prince Kwasi Boachi

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Things happened much more quickly in the following weeks. Having become a laughingstock in British Penang and, to a lesser extent, in Europe for their defeat, the Dutch were determined to heap revenge on Aceh. The news spread across the whole archipelago, causing fear in Batavia of widespread uprising. To reclaim colonial authority, they returned to Aceh with twice many troops.

Lucky for them, the second invasion was more successful than the first. The colonizer managed to storm the Sultan’s kranom and occupy the capital. As the Achenese fighters retreated to their jungle strongholds, Kwabena pleaded with the chief to be taken along with them but was refused. Perhaps they were afraid that he would slow them down, or they were still not sure about his loyalty. 

So Kwabena reconciled with the fact that he must go back to the Dutch side but how would he explain his survival from the first invasion to the advancing Dutch force? After racking his brain in a pinch, he came to a workable solution. He would have to be found a prisoner in jail, and tell them that he was spared because he lied to the Acehnese that he was an Ottoman subject...

The Dutch soldiers who found Kwabena alone in prison were surprised and amused at the story of his survival. While the Dutch began to take control and establish themselves in Aceh’s capital, Kwabena was sent back to Batavia for investigation. Fortunately, his story was believed. A low rank soldier like him could not have betrayed anything to the Acehnese anyway, so they concluded and reinstated him in service. 

Armed with a “veteran” status, his fluency in Dutch and intelligence, Kwabena quickly earned the trust of high-rank Dutch officers and soon found himself as a personal guard at the office of the Governor of Batavia. It was during this time that he stealthily taught himself to read with archived materials in the office. 

Third Anglo-Ashanti War 1873-4

For a few years he had heard nothing of the Gold Coast. Dutch recruitment in the Gold Coast ceased after they left the territory to Britain. Therefore, there were nobody to carry news from faraway Africa. Kwabena was, however, still confident that Ashanti, abandoned by their former ally the Dutch at the mercy of their long-time enemy Britain would prevail against Wolseley’s troops.

Just when he finally managed to convince himself out of worries. News arrived from his brother Yaw who managed to pay a Dutch sailor on a British ship to bring Kwabena heart-breaking news from home.

The sailor told Kwabena that Wolseley’s troop managed to reach Kumasi and burned down the Ashanti capital, after failing to capture King Karikari. Most of the populations safely escaped to surrounding towns. However, conditions were difficult, and his delicate wife Kisi, who Kwabena left in Yaw’s protection, succumbed to jungle diseases two years earlier .... 

1874 Burning of Kumasi by Wolseley's troop

At first, Kwabena refused to believe what he heard, but the sailor gave him Kisi’s pendant which is identical to his. For weeks, Kwabena wept for his wife. Now his life has nothing to hope for and no one to return to. For all of this, Kwabena blamed it squarely on the Dutch.

No longer able to serve the Dutch, he leveraged his basic knowledge of Acehnese language to take  employment with the French colons-explorateurs who, after the defeat of the Franco-Prussian War, were returning to Aceh on “scientific” expedition which was only a thinly-veiled exploration of exploitable Acehnese gold. The existence of gold in Aceh was already known in Europe. Some believed it to be potentially as rich as the Californian and Australian goldmines.

One day, Kwabena finally met Edouard Roura, the French sea captain well known to the Acehnese and a friend of their regent Habib Abdul Rahman. Roura had heard of Kwabena’s story and took interest.

It’s from Roura that Kwabena heard about the true intentions of these “exploration” as expounded by Brau de St.-Pol Lias, one of Société de Géographie Commerciale’s loudest proponents, in writing thus:

“… the true way to study a country seriously is to support exploration upon colonial establishments which allow it all the length of time, all the continuity which it must have, all the security which it must enjoy; just as the way to harvest all the fruits of exploration is to have the exploration radiate from these establishments, to place, behind the explorers, colonists of which they are the avant-garde, who can profit from their discoveries, take root where they have penetrated, and push them yet further afield.”

Tuanku Mohammad Daud Syah II (c. 1903)
the last Sultan of Aceh from 1875-1903

For them, the Society is meant as a way for France to return to its “traditional place of honor” among nations by forging a new vigor in the fires of overseas adventure. Colonization would be their effective spring where the powers of the French people would be refreshed. It was not only the need to dispose of excess manufacturers which demanded that France acquire colonies, but the “problems of excess talent, education and leadership.”

For Kwabena, these French “pioneers” were no less disgusting than the British that they hated (and the only reason they hated the British was because they refused to participate in their idea of “patriotism of race”.)  Therefore, Kwabena took no small amount of joy in delivering two of them, Wallon and Guillaume, to the hand of an Acehnese lord on their fake expedition to “buy pepper”. 

During another expedition by the French, Kwabena met with another Acehnese lord who recognized immediately as the chief who had spared his life six years earlier and was now serving under Teuku Imam Muda of Teunom.

Faintly, Kwabena started to see a way to avenge Kisi’s death. What is a better way to spend what has been saved of his life than to fight for Aceh whose fate exactly mirrored that of Ashanti -- abandoned to fight the Dutch by their former ally Britain? How many lived would be spared from the pangs that he felt?

After the French expeditions failed, Kwabena went to the army headquarter in Banda Aceh had become an established center of Dutch administration in Aceh, and was quickly reinstated as a corporal of an African company.

In November 1883, when Kwabena heard the news of the S.S. Nisero crew being taken hostage by Teuku Imam, he knew his time has come …. 

Dutch map of the Kraton, 1874

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Soon after fulfilling their ultimatum by bombarding Teunom port and burn all the huts and plantations within a day’s walk, the Dutch troop returned to their ship without the hostages who had been taken further inland. They also found that an African corporal was missing ….

Holding upright his rifle whose tip was tied with an Acehnese flag he had secretly made and carried,  Kwabena ventured alone deep into the unknown jungle where untrained eyes would see only foliage and mud. But Kwabena had learned those many years ago how to read imperceptible paths taken by Acehnese soldiers.

Six hours later, he was found, tied up and taken at gunpoint by some Acehnese fighters to their hideout. Having been told of a black devil soldier, the chief laughed when he saw Kwabena.

Chief: This time you came with the correct symbol.

Kwabena smiles: Yes, chief. I know that my pendant alone would not protect me this time.

Chief: Holding our flag won’t save you either, Dutch soldier.

K: You are wrong, Chief. The flag is just a friendly gesture. But I have something else that will show you which side I am on. 

Chief: What do you have? Where is it?

Kwabena taps his forehead: In here. Over the past three years, I have been in and out of almost every civil and military building in Banda Ache. Let me show you…

With a stick, Kwabena started to draw some shapes and lines on the ground. After he finished, he sticks the flag right in the middle.

K: Chief, this is how you win this war…. Maps… 

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 Next on 1884 

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0010 Aceh in 1884: Heart of Dutchness (Part 1)

PREVIOUSLY on 1884 

7 January 1884

Sultanate of Aceh

Osram ne nsoromma

As a new day dawns, the Dutch troops are getting ready to land on the northwest coast of Sumatra under Acehnese control. Their mission is to rescue 29 sailors of S.S Nisero --  18 of whom British --  being held hostage by Teuku Imam Muda of Teunom, after the British ship with its cargo of sugar from Surabaya ran aground near his territory two months earlier.

The Dutch-Aceh war, now in its 11th years, have caused strains in the relationship between the two Powers, as British Penang has a near monopoly on Aceh’s lucrative pepper trade accounting for half of the world’s total. Now with, Teuku Imam’s demand for Britain’s guarantee that his ports would be permanent free from Batavia’s shipping restrictions has caused heightened tension between Britain and Holland. After two months of negotiation and its ultimatum failed to secure the hostages, Holland has now decided to give force to its threat.

Teuku Imam Muda, Raja of Teunom (c. 1898)

This is not the first expedition to Aceh for Kwabena. As a barely trained soldier, he was among the first to be sent to Aceh war in a unit consisting mainly of African soldiers from the Gold Coast just like him. It was  part of the first Dutch invasion of Aceh under General Köhler's command… 

It was eleven years ago....

After two days of bombardment, the colonial force made a landing between the port of Ulèë Lheuë and the mouth of the Aceh river. They were suddenly ambushed by klewang-wielding Acehnese who had been hiding in the bush and lost a dozen of soldiers before beating back the attackers.

Six days later after the heavy fighting, the fortified Masjid Raya, the Great Mosque, was seized. But while General Köhler was looking through a binocular to survey the area under a tree behind the mosque, a rain of bullets fatally hit him and nearby soldiers. The shots are followed by a swarm of Acehnese who rapidly cut down survivors like falling leaves.

Aceh villager with klewang and blunderbuss (c. 1874)

Shot in his shoulder, Kwabena managed to block an attacker’s blade with his musket but was attacked by another from the side who opened a gash on his leg. As he fell on the ground bleeding into stupor, he saw General Kohler lying in a pool of blood not far away.

Just when the attacker was about to strike Kwabena the same fate with a deadly blow, his klewang stopped midair and slowly lowered. His fellow Acehnese, having finished off their victims, gathered around and started pointing at the unconscious soldier and discussed something among themselves. One, who appeared to be their chief, ordered his men to carry him back into the jungle with them….

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When Kwabena regained his consciousness in a hut, he found his hand tied but his aching wounds had been dressed and the bleeding stopped. He was puzzled by his own escape from death. Why did the Acehnese fighters spare his life and carry him here?

The chief he previously saw approached Kwabena with a few of his men. His hand clutches on something that Kwabena recognized immediately. It was the leather pendant that his wife had given him before he left his homeland.

The chief asked him in Dutch, “Are you an Ottoman?” Kwabena was puzzled by the question. The chief showed him the pendant and repeated the question but couldn’t get an answer to his satisfaction. He turned to say something to one of the men, who quickly disappeared and came back with what surprised him even more: a tall man dressed much like the Acehnese but appeared to be a white man.

The white man introduced himself in Dutch, “My name is Thepen. The chief wants to know if you are a subject of the Ottoman Empire.”

Kwabena shook his head, “No. Why would they think that? I'm just a Dutch soldier.”

Thepen: Your pendant says that you are protected by the Ottoman flag.

Kwabena: What are you talking about? It’s an adinkra symbol, Osram ne nsoromma. The moon and a star symbolizing love, bonding and faithfulness in marriage. My wife gave it to me.

Thepen chuckles and turned around to interpret Kwabena’s answer to the chief. He was stunned by the answer for a moment, while his men bellowed out their laughs.

Thepen: The chief said you’re a very lucky man. Without that pendant your wife would already be a widow.

Kwabena: But why didn’t they kill me?

Thepen: You see? For them, the symbol of a crescent moon and a star means the Ottoman flag which the Acehnese Sultan also adopted as Acehnese flag. These people are expecting the Ottoman troops to help them fight the Dutch. You have to thank your wife for saving your life.

Flag of the Ottoman Empire from 1844, also adopted by the Acehnese Sultanate

The chief then says something

Thepen: The chief said that you wife may have saved you with the pendant once, but only the Grace of God can keep you alive.

He then lowered his voice and said: If I were you, this would be the moment where you found a new religion ...

Religious conversion is not hard when your life depends on it. Besides, Kwabena has seen many ex-soldiers near Java Hill who have returned from the Dutch East Indies as converts. Happy to be alive, he nods and says thank you to the chief.

 

 

Meanwhile, the first Dutch expedition ended in a disaster. Having lost its commander and many men to diseases and Acehnese defense, they retreated to Batavia three weeks after landing. The Acehnese reoccupied their capital with highest morale than ever, having won a major battle against a European Power. It’s something unheard of, not only in Sumatra but the whole archipelago.

Over the next few weeks, Kwabena slowly recovered from his injuries under the care of Thepen who trained Acehnese soldiers to use small arms for a local rajah. One day, the Dutch man came in with another white man.

Thepen: Kwabena, this is my mate John Swendsen from Norway. He just came back from Penang.

Kwabena reaches to give Swendsen a handshake.

Kwabena: How did you end up here? Did you know each other from before?

Swendsen: Thepen and I were originally sailors. We met each other when he was training soldiers for the Raja of Kedah. After that we tried our luck as trade partners in Penang, but luck ran out and none of the Europeans would help outcasts like us. We were destitute until the local Muslims helped us. Then we entered the service of the Raja of Simpang Ulim and converted to Islam.

Thepen: They call us “rice Muslims” because we were a charity case, I guess.

Kwabena: I guess now I am one too.

Swendsen: I heard how you got here. That’s quite incredible.

Kwabena shows him the pendant that saved his life: Yes, I only have my wife to thank and this.

Swendsen takes a closer look and turns to Thepen with a smile: Very nice. Maybe we should make ones too.

Thepen smiles back: Why not? If we can find some nice leather.

Kwabena: I’m curious. Why did Aceh adopted the Ottoman flag?

Swendsen: You see? In the 16th century, Sultan Alauddin al-Kahar of Aceh sent envoy to Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent requesting to come under the Ottoman Empire’s suzerainty in return for military support to fight the Portuguese. There’s still an Ottoman canon called lada secupak guarding the dalam – royal enclosure – that testifies to that relationship. Again in 1850, Aceh sent envoy to the Ottoman Empire to renew the relationship. A few years later, Sultan Ibrahim also sent $10,000 to help the Ottoman’s expenses in the Crimean War.

Kwabena: Wow, you do know a lot about Aceh history.

Thepen: Of course, that’s his job nowadays, running to foreign consuls trying to find alliance for Aceh.

Kwabena: They must be pinning their hope on the Ottoman.

Habib Abdul Rahman in Turkey (1873)

R: Yes. Five years ago, 65 Acehnese notables signed an appeal requesting Ottoman protection against the intransigent Dutch, but it did not get anywhere. So our chief diplomat Habib Abdul Rahman is again carrying Sultan Mahmud’s letter to Constantinople. He must be somewhere between Mecca and Constantinople, as we speak.

Kwabena: How about other Powers?

Swendsen: Our other chief diplomat Panglima Tibang went to Singapore with the Sultan’s letters for the French and American consuls. France used to be interested in a base in this area to match British Singapore. Our sultan still has letters from Louis Phillipe and Napoleon III. But after the Opium Wars, all they are interested in is China by way of Vietnam. So the Sultan’s letter did not attract their interest this time.

Thepen: After their recent defeat at the hands of the Germans, France is very messy right now.

Kwabena: How about the Americans?

Swendsen: Consul Studer was sympathetic. That’s why I was sent as advisor and translator to the Sultan’s retainer to offer trade privileges in exchange for driving away the Dutch. We will have to wait for what President Grant says.

Thepen: We have to be careful not to repeat the same mistake. According to a captured Dutch officer, it was the first meeting with the American consul on possible treaty that alerted the Dutch consul in Penang, Read, who wrote a letter that so panicked the Kompeuni into declaring war. They must have a spy who tipped them off.

Panglima Tibang (c. 1878)

Swendsen: Especially now with the rumored discovery of oil on the island, they definitely do not want any other European Power on Sumatra, after all the sacrifices they have made to keep the British out since the 1824treaty. Britain controls north of the Strait of Malacca, and Holland south of it.

Kwabena: Sounds like what they did more recently in 1867 and 1870.

Thepen: Yes, you must have heard about those because it also concerned the Gold Coast where you’re from. 

Kwabena: Of course. Not only we heard about it, but the whole region and all the peoples went through chaos because they never bothered to ask our opinions, let alone consents. First, they swapped forts so that each would have continuous areas of control, and suddenly natives of the same tribes were separated, and enemies suddenly found themselves within the same border. 

Swendsen: I heard even the French wanted to get involved, trying to exchange their worthless forts for British Gambia which is surrounded by France's Senegal and Casamance.

Kwabena: I didn't know about the French, but it was messy enough just between Britain and Holland. There were wars among tribes and war against the Dutch which went so bad that they wanted out altogether.

Thepen: And that’s when they made the agreement. Britain gets all Dutch possessions on the Gold Coast. Holland gets to do whatever it wants on Sumatra, as long as it doesn’t jeopardize British Penang’s monopoly on the pepper trade. Also the Dutch got Indian workers to work in Suriname.

Kwabena: They carve out empires and swap lands and peoples like a game of cards.

Thepen: Like the good old day when the Pope halved the worldfor Spain and Portugal. I know Britain would rather have Sumatra in Dutch hands rather than more powerful counties.

Swendsen: My country – well, actually the Danes – also used to have slave forts on the Gold Coast -- part of which was robbed from Sweden. But after the end of the slave trade, it’s not profitable anymore, so they sold it off to Britain. I wonder why the Dutch hanged on to theirs for so long. Maybe gold?

Kwabena: I think the real reason is they have turned the source of slaves into a supply of cheap recruits to fight for them in Java and the Moluccas. I am one of them.

Thepen: I am sorry for that. I apologize on behalf of my people – well, they’re not my people anymore – but they have done that for a long time. Long before recruiting soldiers from Africa, they once used their exclusive access to Japan to recruit samurais to do all kinds of dirty works for them, like the annihilation of the natives of Banda islands just to take away their nutmeg plantations. Many atrocities have been committed like using opium to siphon the wealth of other counties, Java war, Bali invasion… 

Painting displayed at Museum Rumah Budaya, Banda Neira, Maluku, Indonesia

Swendsen chuckles: VOC, the Violent Opium Company. The Brits really learned from the best and went further until they were rewarded with Hong Kong.

Thepen: In turn, the VOC also learned from the Portuguese and beat them at their own game.

Kwabena: This may be a rude question. But why are you on the Acehnese side, and not your motherland's? Is it only because the Acehnese supported you during your hard time?

Thepen: I have completely lost all respect in Holland after I read Max Havelaar. Now I don't only hate the Dutch, but all imperialists.

Swendsen: Which means pretty much all of Europe. 

Kwabena: Do you think the Ottoman will help Aceh again this time, like when they helped Aceh fight  the Portuguese?

Swendsen: I sure hope so. Acehnese in Penang and Singapore are also finding ways to recruit fighters from across the archipelago to join Aceh’s war. For them, this is a jihad, a holy war. It’s like going to Mecca for pilgrimage, but they don't even have to go so far.

Thepen: Let’s hope that they can get to Aceh. If the Dutch finds out, they will definitely try to stop them.

Swendsen: They must be preparing for another invasion after the monsoon. We should be prepared, whether outside helps come or not.

Thepen: That’s my job to train our men so that we can beat them off Aceh again like Koxinga kicked their asses off Formosa two centuries ago...

TO BE CONTINUED...

Next on 1884.

0007 Madagascar in 1884: The Baobab and the hyena

PREVIOUSLY on 1884 

Màhamàsina, Madagascar

July 3, 1884

For several days after the orders were issued for the assembling of a great royal kabàry on the plain at Màhamàsina, the town and neighborhood are crowded with people flocking in from the country, and everyone is anxiously expecting the queen's discourse. Màhamàsina is a large plain at the foot of the mountain on which the capital city of Antanànarìvo is built. Very careful arrangements has been made for the order and marshaling of such a vast concourse of people, who assemble in their thousands, and a platform erected for the sovereign and her ministers, from which the discourse is to be delivered. 

Crossroads, some ten feet wide, are kept open in every direction by fences and large prominent arches at each entrance enable the people to steer their way in and out of the crowd without disorder or inconvenience. Doctors are stationed at intervals, their positions denoted by a little white flag bearing a red cross. 

By ten o'clock the people are already crowding to their places, and some twenty to thirty thousand are already on the field, while every house and terrace, wall and balcony, overlooking the plain, is covered with women. Among the spearmen are bands of children of all ages armed with spear and shield, one band especially attracting notice as consisting of children between six and ten years of age. Their spears are about five feet long, and their shields of wood fifteen inches in diameter. All the schools of Antanànarìvo are drawn up in arms, and palace school makes a very show in their uniforms. 

A great royal kabàry

There are also countless regiments of recruits armed with muzzle-loaders, flint-locks, and native-made guns. The regular city regiments, consisting of 5000 troops, march on to the field at half-past eleven, and took up their positions along the central enclosure and along the different avenues dividing the plain. They are dressed in white tunics, dark blue cotton trousers, and brown helmets, and were all armed with breech- loading rifles which looked exceedingly bright and clean. 

Prime Minister Rainilaiarivony is waiting for the queen’s arrival. Queen Ranavalona III is supposed to leave the Rova at twelve o'clock but the crowd is so thick that it probably will require more than an hour to pass through the city and descend to the plain.

In his twenty years as prime minister, Rainilaiarivony has been through many royal kabàry, but today’s will go down as one of the most important, as Queen Ranavalona will declare war on France. The Prime Minister gently stroke his favorite white mare’s neck to calm her nervousness. A direct descendant of the first houses presented to the Merina court by the British, she’s a reminder of the beginning of the friendship between the two kingdoms some seventy years ago. 

Prime Minister Rainilaiarivony, in the 1880's.

Madagascar was once in a strategic position on the route to India around the Cape. During the Napoleonic Wars, a naval expedition was sent to capture the Mascarene Islands in the Indian Ocean from the French, in order to prevent them being used as a base to attack Britain's Indian colonies like during the American Revolutionary War some thirty years earlier. In addition, another goal was to get rid of Mauritius-based French privateers who have attacked Britain’s East India Company’s fleet and caused millions of pounds in losses. 

After the war, Britain had to return Réunion and Comoros to France but got to keep Mauritius and Seychelles. Robert Townsend Farquhar, a former Lieutenant-Governor of Penang and Britain’s first governor of Mauritius, sent a mission to the Merina court to request help to end the slave trade and was embraced by King Radama the Great’s reception and cooperation. 

Rainilaiarivony thinks. The English expression “a friend in need is a friend indeed” is just empty air to them. When they needed something from us, then we were their friends – only to be conveniently discarded when no longer in need. If he had given any benefit of the doubt to Britain for her inaction regarding France’s war on Madagascar, his conversation on June 16 with the new British consul Mr. Hicks Graves while waiting for the queen’s arrival in the throne room would have finally confirmed to him that the old Malagasy expression “as false as the British” is true.

PM: I hope you have fully recovered from your eight-day travel from our French-occupied port, Consul.

Consul: Thank you, Prime Minister. I had a couple of days to recover. If this is the good season to make the journey, I don’t want to imagine what it’s like in the bad. Thanks to the eight men who carried me in filanjana or I would not have survived it really. I didn’t expect most of it to be long arduous climbs through such thick forest. With the sunlight only filtered through like tiny stars and the sounds of the lemur throughout days and nights, it seemed like another world. 

PM: You are in another world, Consul. Our island, animals and plants are different from anywhere else. Consul: I was hoping to see some Malagasy Baobab trees which I have read about, but didn’t see any.

PM: They are usually found along the dry western coast, Consul. You must have read the story of how they look as though they appear upside-down and grow in dry land?

Consul: No, please tell me. I’m fascinated by native legends and how they tie the peoples to the land.

PM: Oh, you will love this one. It goes like this. After having created Earth and the animals, God was going to cover the land with trees and plants. The hyena, fancying itself the smartest, proposed to help God so that it can claim the title as chief of all God’s creatures. Then God gave him baobab seeds to grow, saying, “These are Baobab seeds. They are strong but grow very slowly. They will stand the tallest among my creatures even in the most arid lands.” Having heard God’s words, the hyena felt inferiority of its own stature and became jealous of the Baobab. It found the sandiest corner of Earth and put the Baobab seeds in the ground upside down, so that they wouldn’t grow …

Consul: … And the rest is history.  

PM: Yes, Consul, like the history that we are writing. We, all peoples of Madagascar, are as tough as the Baobab trees. We will overcome all difficulties, even this French war.

Consul: But am I right to think that hyenas are not native to Madagascar?

PM: They aren’t, Consul. But hyenas are cunning. They invite themselves over in ships and gunboats!

Consul laughed: I don’t think hyenas are very French either.

Prime Minister chuckles: Oh, no, no, no. Consul. I am not comparing the French to the hyena. That would be too cruel on the poor animal. All I say is when the news reached Antanànarìvo of Admiral Miot's conditions, great indignation was felt by the people. So the royal proclamation was issued in the Malagasy Gazette ten days ago.

Queen Ranavalona III

The Prime Minister signals his aide to hand the Consul a copy of the English translation which reads:

“ I, Ranavàlomanjàka, through the grace of God and the will of people Queen of Madagascar and defender of its laws, declare unto you my subjects that negotiations with the French have come to an end, for we can no longer endure their doings, for they say that this land of our ancestors is not ours but theirs, and has theirs for a very long time; if we give it up to them, that is what they want, say they; but if we do not give it up to them, then they will take it by force, and we shall be deprived of our independence. 

In consequence of these unbearable threatenings, the words which we have long expressed must now become fact, namely, that everyone shall stand up like a man and fight the enemy… Be diligent then in learning the art of war, for the day draws nigh when I shall examine your ability therein, and none shall I exempt from instruction. If there any that you see not learning, be he who he may, bring him to the seat of judgment, and I shall fine him in money equivalent to the price of his head, for he is a traitor. Let each one beware of causing tumult, and be not excited by others to disorder, for order and unity are our strength in thig business. Should tumult or disorder arise, then I shall make that town in which it arises responsible for it. 

Behold also the foreigners that are now in my land and kingdom; take good care of them and of their possessions, for they are our friends, and have nothing to do with those who are fighting against us. Observe well these my words, and let each one show himself a man both in thought and deed, in order that the world may see that our courage is not mere talk. 

RANAVÀLOMANJÀKA, Mpanjàka ny Madagaskara" 

Wearing a traditional striped lamba over his military uniform, Rainilaiarivony sits to inspect his troops at the Rova compound (around 1865)

Consul: I can certainly understand the feelings of Her Majesty and the Malagasy people in this regard, Prime Minister.

As the bugle sounded, the young Queen Ranavalona entered the throne room in her white gown cloaked under a large stately silk lamba with colorful flower patterns. Prime Minister and then Consul kissed her gloved hand.

Consul: “Your Majesty. It is with great pleasure that I find myself in your presence this day. I had hoped to be able to visit this your capital at a less distant period from the date of my arrival in Madagascar, but I have in the meantime visited many of the towns on the coast held by your garrisons, at which I am glad to able to state I was received with all courtesy by the governors in your Majesty's name I would beg to assure your Majesty that I also will spare no effort to compel my men to observe the treaty between the two countries, and in this I feel sure I shall be seconded by Her Britannic Majesty's vice-consul in this city, Mr. Pickersgill, and the different British vice-consuls on the coast." 

Queen Ranavalona replied, " It is a great pleasure to us to see you, representative of our good friends, safely in my capital. I take the words which you have just uttered a fresh proof of the good friendship and the earnest wish your Government entertains towards us. I am delighted to assure you that I am always ready to do my best in opening my country to civilization and commerce with other nations, fully convinced that by so doing it tends not only to increase the wealth of our dominions, but good understanding between us and the Treaty Powers will ensue. I trust that the English nation, which shown feelings towards us for a very long period, will be willing as ever to help us morally in carrying out our views." 

Consul: It will be my greatest privilege to do so, on behalf of Her Britannic Majesty’s government. Her Britannic Majesty also sends her deepest condolence again for the passing of Queen Ranavalona II last year.

Queen: Thank you. Please return our deepest gratitude to Her Britannic Majesty Queen Victoria for her condolence and kindness. I hope that your government has laid before Her Majesty the difficulties we are having with France. It has been thirteen months since they began their unprovoked bombardments of our garrisons and posts along the coast and captured Majunga while the envoys we sent to negotiate with Paris had not even returned home.

Consul: Yes, Your Majesty. I am painfully aware of the difficulties. 

Queen: All of the French residents here in the capital would have been murdered after the news arrived, if my aunt the late Queen had not offered them five days to leave Antanànarìvo safely and provided them with porters to carry their belongings. 

Consul: Her Majesty Ranavalona’s decision was most magnanimous. The remaining foreigners of British, Norwegian and American nationalities in Antanànarìvo are forever grateful for Her Majesty’s permission to stay and for the special guards sent to protect them and their properties. 

Prime Minister's Palace (1884)

Queen: I remember my aunt say, “They call us barbarians, and if we did otherwise we would prove ourselves to be so.” But in response to our justified expulsion of French residents, the French Admiral sent an outrageous ultimatum which we immediately refused, for which they immediately bombarded our fort at Tamatave before proceeding to land and put the whole port town under siege. How long was the notice they gave to other foreigners living in Tamatave to leave, Consul?

Consul: They were given 24-hour notice to evacuate to their country’s ships, Her Majesty.

Queen: That’s 23 hours more than they gave our people at Majunga. And did your predecessor Vice-Consul Pakenham not die during that 24 hours, and a British missionary Mr Shaw not thrown into jail for over a month on a false charge?

Consul: Your Majesty is very well informed. Indeed, Mr Pakenham died of poor health, and Mr Shaw was imprisoned through some misunderstanding. But these have been sorted out to the satisfaction of the parties involved, Your Majesty.

Queen: How cordial the diplomatic conducts between Western nations are. If only our kingdom would be treated similarly as an equal civilized nation.

The Rova (Royal Palace) of Antananarivo (1884)

Consul: Despite the rocky relationship during Queen Ranavalona I's reign, Britain has always cherished the relationship with the Merina Kingdom and treated her as equal, ever since the oath of blood brotherhood between King Radama and Captain Le Sage and the close friendship between the great king and Mr. James Hastie, Your Majesty.

Queen: Mr. Hastie was well loved by everyone. With the treaty that he negotiated, the great king formed a formal alliance with the British crown to eliminate exportation of slaves and was recognized as the King over all of Madagascar. 

PM: I also owe the good Mr. Hastie a personal gratitude. If not for him, I would not have lived a single day of life.

Consul: Oh, how, Prime Minister?

PM: I was born, Consul, on a day considered unlucky day by the mpisikidy – diviners. The traditional practice would be to leave such a baby in a cattle pen to be trampled to death. But thanks to Mr Hastie, such cruel practices were outlawed by the king just a few years before my birth. And look at me. Now I am a Prime Minister and a good Christian just like yourself.

Queen: Thanks to the hard works initiated by the missionaries of the London Missionary Society, now we have established our own churches, schools, hospitals, local industries, flourishing trade and a modern army. We have become a constitutional monarch and a Christian nation just as Britain.

Consul: Madagascar has modernized rapidly in such a short time since the Anglo-Malagasy Treaty of 1817, Your Majesty. During his visit three years ago, our commander-in-chief of the East India Station, Rear-Admiral Gore Jones, was so impressed with the advances made in the kingdom’s civilization, and reported that the Malagasy people have become a race fit to govern their native land, and the fact obviates the necessity for the intervention of any outside nation.

Antananarivo (1884)

Queen: Germany and the United States also recognize the sovereignty of our kingdom over the whole island. On the contrary, France unfortunately seems to think that Sakalava rebels were at liberty to cede to them our coastal territory. 

PM: In any case, the French knew how flimsy their claims were, so they never followed them up with occupation except at Nosy Be. They also repudiated their claims, if any, in the Franco-Malagasy Treaty of 1868 which recognizes our kingdom’s sovereignty over the whole island. Previous French consuls also never made any such rights until recently. 

Consul: Even our government did not know of these treaties existed until the French, after several inquiries, recently supplied us with some sketchy information. 

PM: If I were you, I would not easily trust any documents they produce. You must be aware of the difficulty we have regarding the dubious Lambert Charter. And also regarding the inheritance of the good Monsieur Laborde who received lands from Queen Ranavalona I for his many services. But France would not accept that, according to Malagasy law, the land must revert to the Crown upon their death or departure.

Consul: Indeed, as was the case with Mr Hastie, Prime Minister.

Queen: Exactly, Consul. Besides, the deed supposedly signed King Radama II was dated one year after his death, so it must have been carelessly forged by Monsieur Laborde’s son who, as one of the secretaries of state, had charge of the royal seal for some time.

King Radama the Great reviewing his troops (1825)

Consul: We are aware of the difficulty with France over the issue of the Laborde inheritance and their demand that the law against freeholding of lands by foreigners be revoked. Earl Granville has informed his French counterpart that such laws are common in many countries. Even England used to have one until only a few years ago. We are of the opinion that Your Majesty’s gracious offer to amend the law to allow extendable long leases is entirely satisfactory for us.

PM: I wish the French were as reasonable. They insist on their one-sided story to extort us. The same with the Toualé dhow incident. Although French subjects were trafficking weapons to the warring tribes on our coast in violation of our law and when intercepted fatally shot our people, they are claiming damage for the deaths of the crew who died in the return fire. Why would they make such a demand on us, if they didn’t recognize our authority over that territory in the first place?

Queen: If we yield to them on one question, they will make another more outrageous demand. Admiral Miot threatened that the purpose was to make us come to agreement more quickly. That’s why throughout eight rounds of negotiations, he kept escalating his demands with such arrogant words. Not only the territories, but our very independence is at risk. 

French conquest of Tunisia (1881)

PM: You must realize, Consul, that these are just excuses. Jules Ferry is very eager on his second term to expand the French Empire. After robbing Tunisia from the Ottoman Empire (to Italy’s jealousy) in exchange for British occupation of Cyprus three years ago, now Ferry wants to do one better and bigger to regain France’s prestige after the defeat in the Franco-Prussian War. He wants another French Algeria to rally popular support and subdue internal troubles. French Catholics, Reunion colonists as well as the mainlanders with interests are pushing for expansion into our great island like a pack of hyenas. Despite the sincere efforts by our own Minister of Foreign Affairs, they tried to steal our island with a straight face, hoping that our envoy would not notice the changes in wordings on the treaty to be signed in Paris. 

Queen: Since our envoys also laid the issues to your government in London, what help can Britain give us, Consul?

Consul: Earl Granville’s offer to mediate was firmly rejected by France, Your Majesty. But we will continue to do our best to convince France to settle the disagreement diplomatically.

The Prime Minister scoffs: And neutrality is the best Britain can do for her friend Madagascar?

He knows the exact reason for the Consul’s lack of commitment although he expected as much. The delegation to Europe arrived in Paris two years ago just as the French public became enraged by Britain’s invasion of Egypt. That’s why Britain would not risk provoking more French wrath.

The invasion of Egypt again exposed Britain’s real interest: the control of the sea route to India. Suez Canal, mostly funded by French financiers, in French-influenced Egypt was supposed to give France a strategic advantage, but Britain snatched Egypt from French jaw of victory. Maybe Britain is even willing to turn a blind eye if France claims Britain-influenced Madagascar as compensation. If they can betray powerful China on French invasion of Tonkin question, why not us? 

What a friend indeed. To Prime Minister, Western powers may behave like hyenas against non-Western nations, but among themselves they are like grooming lemurs licking each other’s dirty parts. If only one can find a way to turn them against each other like hyenas fighting over a juicy bone. The Pakenham-Shaw incident was close, and could have provoked a fallout if not for British restraint over Egypt …

Prime Minister noticed that, on his part, the Consul also kept his words at minimum. If only he could read his mind, he would be confirmed how peripheral Madagascar was to British attention. A lot other British interests in and around Africa were at stake. After Egypt, France is trying to find a foothold for control around the Red Sea and Suez facing off British Aden. There are also other areas of potential Anglo-French conflict over the Congo and the Niger. And who knows what Bismarck has up his sleeves, now that Germans are appearing on the Southwestern coast of Africa?  what if they ally with the Boers or, God forbid, France? And there’s also their activities in East Africa and Zanzibar. 

East Africa and Madagascar

Consul then broke the awkward silence by sharing some small pieces of intelligence: Let this stay between us, Prime Minister. As I arrived in Mauritius, I received the telegram updating us that France had just concluded an accord with China over the war in Tonkin, so more ships could be heading this way.

PM: Let them come, Consul. It’s easy for them to underestimate the difficulties of conducting war on our island.  

Consul: It seems to me that they have become bogged down on the coast. A large number seemed to be ill, and they had to call for reinforcement from Reunion. 

PM: And the Sakalava chiefs that they claimed as allies never to rally to their cause. Thanks to General Hazo and General Tazo, it’s not … What’s the English expression? … a walk in the park for them.

Consul: Who are General Hazo and General Tazo, Prime Minister?

Prime Minister smiles: General Forest and General Fever, Consul. In addition we also have to thank our chief military advisor Adjutant-General Digby Willoughby. He’s a Zulu War veteran from your country.

Consul: Ah, yes. The French also inquired why a British officer was fighting on the Malagasy side, and our Earl Granville informed them that although he’s a British subject, but not an official military officer, so the British Government cannot stop him from his employment.

PM: If you please, I can also arrange for you to review some of our infantry practicing their drill with Remington rifles. Perhaps we can discuss a purchase of more weapons from you….

-----------------------------------------------------------

The trumpets and bugles sound a flourish, as the queen arrives in a gilt palanquin carried by twelve bearers, and is received by the Prime Minister. Her Majesty then mounts the platform and takes her seat on the throne under the canopy. Ranavàlomanjàka III is in European costume, a robe of white silk trimmed with pink satin. She wears her hair plaited, and on her head was a light gold coronet. On a small table to her right is a large Bible, and on a similar table at her left is a scarlet and gold crown. 

The kabàry has now commenced. Prime Minister, drawing his sword, salutes, the whole army presents arms, the bands plays the national anthem, and the cannon in the battery above fires a salute of twenty-one rounds. The saluting over, the troops comes to “the shoulder," the trumpets and bugles sound a flourish, and the queen rises from her throne. In a few minutes a perfect silence ensues amongst the expectant multitude, and, waving her small golden scepter over her people, Ranavalona in a clear ringing voice addresses the people: 

Queen Ranavalona III with royal crown and scepter (around 1890-5)

" O ye people devoted to your fatherland, and ye soldiers strong in battle, my heart is glad as I stand among you. I see that both I, your queen, and this land of our ancestors are indeed dear you; and when I have summoned you to assemble, you have come at the appointed time; therefore I express my satisfaction to you; life and the blessing of God be upon you. 

"And I have to say to you, O my soldiers -- for we all form of the army now, both I and my people -- that since those Frenchmen have invaded our land, I have done everything to bring about a termination of the war. 

"Although we have paid sums of money twice, it was my Intention to give whatever would not involve my sovereignty or impair the independence of Madagascar, this land of our ancestors; for I particularly dislike, and it grieves me indeed, that your blood should be shed. 

“But they were not willing, O my army, and want one-third of Madagascar for themselves, and for us to pay £120,000, as also to indemnify all the losses of other nations during the war; and yet it was not we that destroyed that property but the French alone bombarded and destroyed; they struck the first blow, and did not even give notice of war, but even assailed women and children; and that even is not all they want, but I and my ancestors have been insulted and they will not acknowledge me as Queen of Madagascar but only Queen of Merina. 

"I shall fulfill, O my people, the share in the defense of the land which belongs to me as queen. I have done so, but still I will do more, for, though I am a woman, I have the heart of a man, and I stand up to lead you forth to prevent and oppose those who seek to take our land; for God forbid, O ye people, that we should become the servants of foreigners. Is it not so, ye people? I am confident, O my people in arms, that we are all united as one in holding fast to this beloved land of our ancestors, and in acting so as to frustrate the evil designs of our enemy. For is it not so, O ye people? 

"Further I have to say to you I am extremely gratified to see the unity of combination in learning the art of war. Go on learning and await my commands for I shall not let the enemy come upon you unawares, for our courageous friends have gone to guard the coasts where the enemy will land. And I have to say to you, O people, that you may all know at once, there are no Frenchmen here, but they are foreigners entertaining good friendship toward us who remain here now; so let everyone take good care not to interfere with their persons or property. 

"However, my people, whatever be our strength, or however great our numbers, all this is in vain without the help of God; let every one of us therefore ask for His help for deliverance in this our just cause. 

“And these are my last words to you, O my army, though our bodies be annihilated, we shall not be ashamed nor confounded, but our name and our fame will live forever, because we rather choose to die than yield up our fatherland and the good which God has given us. For is it not so, O ye warriors?” 

It requires some little time for the queen's words to be circulated among the crowd; but by the time Ranavalona reaches her last “Is it not so, ye soldiers ? " the excitement and enthusiasm are at a climax, the people shout, wave their spears and shields, and the sight is one never to be forgotten. 

It is now the turn of the people to reply to her Majesty. First comes the representative of the civilians and the different noble clans of the Merina; their speeches consist of assurances to the queen that they were ready to fight. Their indignation about the queen being called Queen of Merina is very great. 

One spectator says, " We have seen your Majesty's caution in not wishing to endanger the lives of the people, and in trying to make it up by paying money, etc; but we won't have any more trying to make it up.” At this expression the enthusiasm of the people becomes so great that the speaker's voice is no longer heard. 

A great royal kabàry of 1895

Prime Minister next addresses the queen :

"On this occasion of your appearance in Màhamàsina, O Ranavàlomanjàka, before the people who are as your father and your mother, it is not a question of how many persons God left this kingdom to be ruled by, for you alone inherited it from your ancestors. You have come here before the people to thank us, to express your satisfaction at our preparations for war. But we, on the other hand, would say : It is not for you, the queen, to thank us, but we, the people, come to thank you, O lady, and may God’s blessings be upon you. 

“As regards the French making war upon us, especially in what concerns the command of the army, its organization and discipline, rest assured, for here am I, Prime Minister, and everyone will have his part. The man who stands before your Majesty was born to defend this land and to serve his queen. That is no empty expression, for God sees into my heart. Come death, come loss, before the land shall be taken from us. Our war is a just war, and we do not fear; if we die, we have right on our side, and God knows it.. And the fame of those who die in the defense of their country will never perish. 

“We must all die whether we fight or not, much more when our country is taken from us. But if we die in good actions, erect a stone, your Majesty, to our memories and trust in your army. Is it not so, O soldiers?” 

After the prime minister had finished his speech, the queen again rose and said, "Since those are the words of you and your soldiers, I am confident; life, prosperity, and the blessing of God be upon you."

Her Majesty then expresses a desire to see some of the schools go through their spear exercise. Some of the schools from the Bétsiléo province then came forward chanting their war-songs. The boys are about twelve years of age and are very proficient. Her Majesty now descends from the platform, and mounting a white horse, rides round the plain of Màhamàsina to review the troops amid the cheers of the people. The prime minister then declares the kabàry at an end, the royal salute is given, and the troops and the people disperse. 

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 Next on 1884.